Figures of Speech and Literary Style

English Language · WAEC and JAMB · SS2 and SS3

Comprehension and oral questions regularly ask you to name a figure of speech and say what it means or achieves. Naming it is only half the mark; the explanation of the comparison or effect carries the rest.

What you need to know

A simile compares two unlike things using like or as: 'He is as stubborn as a goat.' Without like or as, it is not a simile.
A metaphor states that one thing IS another: 'That boy is a lion in the classroom.' The comparison is direct, with no like or as, and it is stronger than a simile for that reason.
Personification gives human qualities or actions to something non-human: 'The angry sea swallowed the canoe' or 'Hunger knocked on every door in the village.'
Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration for effect, not a lie: 'My school bag weighs a tonne' stresses how heavy it feels and no one is expected to believe the weight.
Litotes is understatement that affirms by denying the opposite, as in 'She is no fool', which means she is clever. Euphemism softens something unpleasant: 'He has passed on' for he has died.
Irony says the opposite of what is meant or describes an outcome contrary to expectation: calling a downpour 'lovely weather' is verbal irony, while a fire station burning down is situational irony. Sarcasm is irony aimed at wounding someone.
An oxymoron places two contradictory words side by side, such as bitter-sweet or deafening silence. A paradox is a whole statement that seems self-contradictory but holds a truth, such as 'The child is father of the man.'
Metonymy replaces a thing with something closely associated with it: 'The crown has spoken' for the monarch. Synecdoche uses a part for the whole: 'We need more hands on the farm.'
Alliteration repeats the same initial consonant sound in nearby words, as in 'the silent, sullen sea'. Assonance repeats vowel sounds within words, and onomatopoeia uses words whose sound imitates their meaning, such as buzz, hiss and clang.
A rhetorical question is asked for effect and expects no answer: 'How long shall we keep quiet?' It pushes the reader towards the writer's own conclusion.
Apostrophe as a figure of speech means addressing an absent person, a dead person or an abstract idea directly: 'O Death, where is thy sting?'
Antithesis sets opposing ideas in balanced structure: 'We came to build, not to destroy.' Repetition of a word or structure drives a point home and is common in speeches.
Symbolism uses a concrete object to stand for an abstract idea, such as a broken calabash standing for a ruined home. Imagery is language that appeals to the senses and makes a scene vivid.
When you answer, use the pattern: name the figure, say what is being compared or exaggerated, then state the effect. 'It is a metaphor comparing the boy to a lion, stressing his boldness' is a complete answer; the single word 'metaphor' is not.

Key terms

Figure of speech: An expression used in a non-literal way to create a particular effect or image.
Metaphor: A direct comparison in which one thing is said to be another, without like or as.
Personification: The attribution of human qualities or actions to an animal, object or idea.
Hyperbole: Deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis and not intended to be believed literally.
Euphemism: A mild or indirect expression used in place of one considered harsh or unpleasant.
Irony: The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning, or an outcome contrary to what was expected.
Imagery: Descriptive language that appeals to the senses to create a picture in the reader's mind.

Worked examples

Identify the figure of speech in 'The angry sea swallowed the canoe' and explain its effect.

Check for like or as. There is none, so it is neither a simile nor a plain comparison.
Look at what the sea is said to do. It is called angry and it swallows, both of which are human or living actions.
Giving human qualities and actions to a non-human thing is personification.
State the effect: it makes the sea seem alive and deliberately hostile, so the loss of the canoe feels like an attack rather than an accident.

Answer: Personification. The sea is given the human feeling of anger and the human action of swallowing, which makes it seem a living, hostile force and heightens the sense of danger.

Name the figure of speech in 'My school bag weighs a tonne' and say what the speaker means.

Ask whether the statement can be literally true. A school bag cannot weigh a tonne.
Deliberate overstatement used for emphasis is hyperbole.
Work out the real meaning behind the exaggeration: the bag is unusually heavy.
Combine the name, the exaggeration and the intended meaning into one answer.

Answer: Hyperbole. The weight is deliberately exaggerated to stress that the bag is extremely heavy to carry.

The mistake to avoid

Candidates name the figure and stop there, so they lose the explanation mark that is usually worth as much as the name. The second error is calling every comparison a simile; without like or as it is a metaphor, and if a human quality is given to a non-human thing it is personification.

In the exam

Answer in one sentence built on three parts: the name, what is compared or exaggerated, and the effect on the reader. Quote the exact words from the passage in your answer so the examiner can see you located the right expression. If you are unsure between metaphor and personification, check whether the thing acting is non-human; if it is, personification is the safer answer.